Childhood Trauma As Predictor Of Deviant Behaviours Among Secondary School Students

ABBREVIATIONS
PTSD – Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
ACEs – Adverse Childhood Experiences
ADHD – Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
HPA –  Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal axis
CSA- Child Sexual Abuse
ADHD – Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

INTRODUCTION
Education remains one of the tools for the transformation of an individual and society at large. It is one of the most powerful instruments for social change, which plays a crucial role in nation-building. According to Idowu and Esere (2007), education helps to develop people’s intellectual and functional capabilities. The school is a place where students acquire needed competencies for various vocations. The place of un- traumatized and non-deviant children in schools cannot be overemphasized for the purposes of having a conducive learning environment.

Trauma is an emotional response to a terrible event like an accident, rape, or natural disaster. Immediately after the event, shock and denial are typical. Longer term reactions include unpredictable emotions, flashbacks, strained relationships, and even physical symptoms like headaches or nausea. Trauma is not the same as mental distress or suffering, however both of which are universal human experiences.

Given that experiences differ between individuals, people will react to similar events differently. In other words, not all people who experience a potentially traumatic event will actually become psychologically traumatized (although they may be distressed and experience suffering). Some people will develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after being exposed to a major traumatic event (or series of events).

This discrepancy in risk rate can be attributed to protective factors some individuals may have that enable them to cope with difficult events, including temperamental and environmental factors (such as resilience and willingness to seek help).  Psychologically, traumatic experiences often involve physical trauma that threatens one’s survival and sense of security.  According to the United State of America’s National Institute of Mental Health, Childhood trauma is defined as ‘The experience of an event by a child that is emotionally painful or distressful, which often results in lasting mental and physical effects. This adverse experience gives way for deviant behaviours among children without resilience to trauma.

Deviant behaviour might be conceptualized as behaviour that violates social norms and values, including a wide range of acts such as theft, lying and assault. The definition includes antisocial behaviours that are violations of criminal law, usually referred to as offences or crimes, as well as acts that are not subject to sanctions by the criminal justice system, such as externalizing or disruptive behaviour (Braga, Gonçalves, Basto-Pereira, & Maia, 2017)

According to the Integrated Cognitive Theory of Antisocial Potential (Farrington, 2017), experiences of child and adolescent maltreatment, such as problematic family environments, antisocial models, delinquent parents and/or peers or traumatic experiences, are factors that foster deviant behaviour in the long run. Likewise, according to Sampson and Laub (2003) being exposed to adverse situations such as poverty, or toxic family environments, provides more favourable conditions for future criminal behaviour.

For example, a child who experiences a negligent family environment may receive little affection, limited family supervision, as well as carelessness on the part of their legal guardians. Due to negligent parenting practices, the probability of this young person establishing a weakened social bond is higher, which is the central aspect in delinquent behaviour (Sampson & Laub, 2003).

CHILDHOOD TRAUMA
Childhood trauma is often described as serious adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Children may go through a range of experiences that is classified as psychological trauma; these might include; neglect, abandonment, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and physical abuse, witnessing abuse of a sibling or parent, or having a mentally ill parent. These events have profound psychological, physiological, and sociological impacts and can have negative, lasting effects on health and well-being of children such as unsocial

Trauma in children is a response to an event, series of events, or circumstances that are physically or emotionally harmful, or life threatening, and which impact functioning and mental, physical, social or emotional wellbeing behaviours, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The implication of childhood trauma is immense.

Trauma may impact the child immediately and also as they grow and mature into adults. Research has concluded that exposure to adverse circumstances affects the developing brain in ways that increase risk for a myriad of problems. Early adversity increases risk for maladaptive outcomes such as memory problems, learning difficulties and cognitive delays. It also increases the risk of academic difficulties and school adjustment, attention and behaviour regulation, and emotional issues such as difficulties with stress management, sensitivity to reward, and emotional and behavioural regulation. Early adversity also leads to an increased risk of mental illness, interpersonal problems and dysfunctional behaviours.

Later in life, higher engagement in health risk behaviours, such as smoking and substance abuse, as well as higher stress among this group increases risk of chronic health conditions including obesity, cancer, stroke and heart disease. Children and young people who experience adversity or trauma are also at higher risk of psychiatric disorders, high-risk antisocial activities, non-suicidal self- injury, and suicidality and suicide. The more adversity a child experiences, the more likely they are to experience negative psychological and physical health later in life. Not all children experience negative physical and psychological health outcomes after trauma, but there is clear evidence that childhood trauma increases the risk of these and other outcomes across the lifespan.

Research is clear that exposure to trauma early in life can result in neurological, psychological, physical, social and learning challenges across the lifespan. The degree of impact that trauma may have on a child varies greatly based on a number of factors and the impacts for children may last for weeks, months or years. The impacts may be relatively small, such as short-term avoidance of things that remind them of the traumatic experience, or large, such as the development of psychological conditions like post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

CAUSES OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMA
Typical or common causes and dangers of psychological trauma includes; sexual abuse, domestic violence, death of loved one, emotional abuse, devoice,  harassment, embarrassment, abandonment, abusive relationships, rejection, physical assault,  bullying, domestic violence, violence in school, or the community, separation from a parent of caregiver, being the victim of an alcoholic parent, the threat or the witnessing of violence (particularly in childhood).

Similarly the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention’s 1998 study on adverse childhood experiences in USA determined that traumatic experiences during childhood are a root cause of many social, emotional, and cognitive impairments that lead to increased risk of unhealthy self-destructive behaviours, risk of violence or re-victimization, chronic health conditions, low life potential and  immortality. As the number of adverse experiences increases, the risk of problems from childhood through adulthood also rises. Nearly 30 years of study following the initial study has confirmed this. Many states, health and education providers, and other groups now routinely screen parents and children for ACEs.

COMMON TRAUMATIC EXPERIENCES AMONG CHILDREN
Emotional/psychological abuse
Emotional abuse is often an understated form of trauma that can occur both overtly and covertly. Emotional abuse revolves around a pattern of emotional manipulation, abusive words, isolation, humiliation and more that tends to have an internalized effect on an individual’s self-esteem, ideals, values and reality. Emotional abuse in children is a distinct issue in relation to childhood trauma and the effects it has on children and their academic growth when growing up in an emotionally abusive household or being in relation with emotionally abusive individual is far reaching.

Bullying
Bullying is any unprovoked action with the intention of harming, either physically or psychologically, someone who is considered to have less power, either physically or socially. Bullying is a form of harassment that is often repeated and habitual. Bullying in childhood may inflict harm or distress and educational harm that can affect the later stage of adolescence. Bullying involvement, as bully/victim, or witness, can threaten the well-being of children. Bullying can be a risk factor for the development of an eating disorder, it can impact the functioning of the HPA axis, and it can impact functioning in adulthood. It increases the risk for physical problems such as depression, panic disorder, substance abuse, and PTSD (Post-traumatic stress disorder  is a mental and behavioural disorder that  can develop because of exposure to a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, warfare, traffic collisions, child abuse, domestic violence, or other threats on a person’s life) and such, can hamper a child’s learning ability.

Community violence
Unlike bullying which is direct, trauma from community violence is not always directly perpetuated on the child, but is instead the result of being exposed to violent acts and behaviours in the community, such as gang violence e.g. gang rape, school shootings, riots, or police brutality. Community violence exposure whether direct, or indirect, is associated with many negative mental health outcomes among children and adolescents including internalizing trauma-related, academic problems, substance abuse, and suicidal ideation. Evidence also indicates that violence tends to beget more violence; children who witness community violence consistently show higher levels of aggression across developmental periods including early and middle childhood, as well as adolescence.

Disasters
Beyond the experience of natural and man-made disasters themselves, disaster-related traumas include the loss of loved ones, disruptions caused by disaster-caused homelessness and hardship and the breakdown of community structures. Exposure to a natural disaster is a highly stressful experience that can lead to a wide range of maladaptive outcomes, particularly in children. Exposure to natural disaster constitutes a risk factor for poor psychological health in children and adolescents and can be a trauma concern. Psychological symptoms tend to decline over time after the exposure; though it is not a rapid process.

Intimate partner violence
Similar to community violence, intimate partner violence-related trauma is not necessarily directly perpetuated on child, but can be the result of exposure to violence within the household, often violence perpetuated against one or more caregivers or family members. It is often accompanied by direct physical and emotional abuse. Outcomes for children include psychological distress, behavioural disorders, disturbances in self-regulation, difficulties with social interaction, and disorganized attachment. Children who were exposed to interpersonal violence were more likely to develop long term mental health problems than those with non-interpersonal traumas. The impact of seeing intimate partner violence could be more serious for younger children. Younger children are completely dependent on their caregivers than older children not only for physical care but also emotional care. This is needed for them to develop normal neurological, psychological, and social development. This dependence can contribute to their vulnerability to witnessing violence against their caregivers.

Physical abuse
Child physical abuse is physical trauma or physical injury caused by slapping, beating, hitting, or otherwise harming a child. This abuse is considered non-accidental. Injuries can range from mild bruising to broken bones, skull fractures, and even death. Short term consequences of physical abuse of children include fractures, cognitive or intellectual disabilities, social skills deficits, PTSD, other psychiatric disorders, heightened aggression, and externalizing behaviours, anxiety, risk-taking behaviour, and suicidal behaviour. Long-term consequences include difficulty trusting others, low self-esteem, anxiety, physical problems, anger, internalization of aggression, depression, interpersonal difficulties, and substance abuse.

Refugee trauma
Refugee-related childhood trauma can take place in the child’s country of origin due to war, persecution, or violence, but can also be a result of the process of displacement or even the disruptions and transitions of resettlement into the destination country. Studies of refugee youth report high levels of exposure to war related trauma and have found profound adverse consequences of these experiences for children’s mental health. Some outcomes from experiencing trauma in refugee children are behavioural problems, mood and anxiety disorders, PTSD, and adjustment difficulty.

Separation trauma
Separation trauma is a disruption in an attachment relationship that disrupts neurological development and can lead to death. Chronic separation from a caregiver can be extremely traumatic to a child. Additionally, separation from a parental or attachment figure while enduring a separate childhood trauma can also produce withstanding impact on the child’s attachment security. This may later be associated with the development of post-traumatic adult symptomology.

Child Sexual abuse
Child sexual abuse (CSA), also called child molestation, is a form of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent uses a child for sexual stimulation. Forms of child sexual abuse include engaging in sexual activities with a child (whether by asking or pressuring, or by other means), indecent exposure (of the genitals, female nipples, etc.), child grooming, and child sexual exploitation, such as using a child to produce child pornography.

Traumatic grief
Traumatic grief is distinguished from the traditional grieving process in that the child is unable to cope with daily life, or even remember a loved one outside of the circumstances of their death. This can often be the case when the death is the result of a sudden illness or an act of violence.

Childhood trauma in it various forms as discussed above has adverse effect on children. Many researchers have further identified some causes of deviant behaviour among children in secondary schools. Most causes of deviant behaviour among student are traced back to their family background. The dysfunctional families, divorce, overprotectiveness, parental negligence among others highlighted above, all determine the character of a child. Other causes could be related to school environment and social media. These causes are discussed below.

DEVIANT BEGAVIOURS AMONG SCHOOL CHILDREN
Deviance is generally defined as any behaviour that does not conform to the established rules of a group of individuals or the society at large (Idris 2016). At this stage, an adolescent finds it difficult to conform to the norms of the society. Deviant behaviours are actions which conflict with the societal norms (Hirschi 1995). It could also be referred to as the engagement of people in criminal offences, illegal, antisocial and unethical behaviour. In a nutshell, any behaviour that violates the norm or social standard of the society is deviant. Deviant behaviour could also be any form of behaviour that contravenes the rules and regulations or even laws that govern an establishment.

Some researchers have identified the different types of deviant behaviour among in-school adolescents which could be as a result of childhood trauma; these include truancy, examination malpractice, substance abuse, bullying, vandalism, and sexual immorality (Odunmuyiwa 2001; Esere 2008). Goode (2007) further stated that behaviour that is deviant in one society may not be in another. Even within a society, what is deviant today may not be deviant tomorrow. Suleiman (2011) noted that a particular behaviour is antisocial if any of these three criteria are seen; when behaviour does not allow a person to function effectively with others as a member of the society, when such behaviour does not permit the person to meet his or her own needs and when behaviour has a negative effect on the wellbeing of others.

Boyd (2015) reported that a lot of youths are involved in the use of tobacco, and heroin in order to overcome their psychological stress. In the same vein, Gordon (2001) revealed that smoking and drug use are basically societal problems among in-school adolescents. Gordon also recorded that 90% of adolescents who are involved in smoking started at an adolescent age. Idris (2016) explained that there are many cases of cultism, sexual abuse, and acts of vandalism, blackmail, threats and intimidations reported by classroom teachers as well as school principals. Idris affirmed that there is an increase in the rate of moral decadence among youths as a result of the lack of discipline. Such indiscipline acts among students have culminated in juvenile delinquency and trauma could be a cause.

The environment in which adolescents live can influence them, especially when there is lack of parental guidance. The school is a major and important environment where a child develops during the formative years. When parents do not consistently react to the undesired behaviour of an adolescent, the child might continue to engage in more deviant behaviours in the school (Suleimen 2011). Poor academic performance also predisposes youth to deviant behaviours. Olawale (2001) emphasized that behavioural problems are common among children of lower intelligence. Babatunde (2016) noted that some children resort to antisocial behaviour due to their inability to cope with the academic rigours of the school.

The home is an agent of socialization. This is the place where values and morals are transmitted. The poor moral conduct of parents can result in broken homes which negatively influence the students’ behaviour.  According to Goode (2007) many parents have lost their leadership roles in the home and poor home training causes students to engage in deviant behaviours. On the other hand, Gbadamosi (2003) observed that the causes of deviant behaviour are linked to faulty curriculum plans, administrative deficiency, inadequate school facilities, harsh school rules and societal problems. Individual differences in personality and psychological problems encountered by students are believed to be some of the reasons some in-school adolescents engage in deviant behaviours. Many of these students cope with their problems by getting involved in behaviours like vandalism, stealing, involvement in illicit sex activities, drug abuse. All these risky behaviours negatively affect public order and the sense of safety of youths (Ibrahim 2012).

MANAGING DEVIANT BEHAVIOURS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Deviant behaviour in the class room increases the stress level of teachers and at the same time changes the classroom dynamics. The uses of the psychological principles are the various ways in which deviant behaviours are managed in schools. This approach is based on some systematic application of psychological principles. Through behavioural modification which can simply be defined as the systematic application of principles derived from learning theories and experience in psychology (Asonibare 2016).

The techniques are used in extinguishing unwanted behaviour and at the same time helping to increase existing positive behaviours. It can also be used to teach new behaviour patterns. In extinguishing unwanted deviant behaviour among in-school adolescents, there are many strategies that can be employed. The behavioural approach is based on the assumption that negative behaviour can be unlearned and replaced with positive ones (Esere 2002). In schools, counsellors use different behavioural modification techniques in managing deviant behaviour.

The use of reinforcement can help curb undesired behaviour among school children. Winkielman (2005) defines reinforcement as a stimulus that strengthens behaviour and increases the frequency of its occurrence. It involves reinforcing one’s positive response which in turn blocks the appearance of undesirable behaviours. There are different types of reinforcement; these are intrinsic reinforcement (that is when behaviour strengthens itself e.g. eating and playing music), extrinsic reinforcement (this is when the behaviour is strengthened by external consequences), primary reinforcement (things that are important to life such as food, water) and secondary reinforcement (things like money and praise).

Counsellors/teachers help in improving students’ behaviour by also using some certain verbal reinforcement principles. Teachers can praise those who obey rules and regulations, thereby ignoring those that are found guilty. Psychologists affirmed that the use of reinforcement helps to provide an explicit model of what is expected among in-school adolescents (Asonibare 2016). Okobiah and Okorodudu (2006) noted that disruptive behaviour can persist if only verbal reinforcement is used by the counsellor on the management of deviant behaviour. Garber (2006) opined that reinforcement strategy in classroom instruction promotes academic achievement. Other strategies for behaviour modification include:

Premack Principles. This can also be called “grandma’s rule”. This is when the counsellor uses preferred behaviour to reinforce less preferred activity.
Token Economy. This is when positive behaviour is reinforced with an exchange for goals.
Contracting. Behaviour contract is a negotiated agreement between two parties. In signing this contract, the counsellor states clearly the purpose of the contract (Alao 2000). The reward is carried out immediately the counsellor observes the positive change.

Punishment can also be used in reducing deviant behaviour. Punishment refers to the use of aversive stimuli to decrease undesirable behaviour. This is often used when all other techniques have failed. There are two major types of punishment: positive punishment (when the counsellor applies aversive consequences like kneeling down and flogging) and negative punishment (this involves the withdrawal of certain privileges) (Asonibare 2004). Adesina (1984) explains that punishment must be retributive; it should serve as a deterrent and must be reformative. Punishment should be applied immediately after a negative behaviour. Other forms of punishment are;

Satiation: This is a way in which the counsellor allows the student to continue with negative behaviour until they are tired of doing it. For example, a child who likes stealing students’ underwear in the hostel can be helped by encouraging the parents to buy more than enough underwear for the student until it pisses the student off (Alao 2000).
Reprimand: This is when a student is rebuked for misbehaviour. Soft, private reprimands are done quietly while a loud public reprimand is when the counsellor or the teacher speaks to the offenders loudly in the presence of others.
Social Isolation: This is often used to decrease undesirable behaviour. The counsellor might decide to set the student aside for the meantime as a result of a particular misbehaviour. The counsellor must be careful when using this method so that other negative behaviours are not strengthened (O’Leary, Kalfman, Kass & Diabman 1970).

Constructive confrontation: this is a way in which the counsellor confronts the client about a particular negative behaviour (Bolu-Steve & Adeboye 2016). Life skill training involves self-management procedures programmes that can be used by the counsellors in managing deviant behaviour. These include:

Assertive training: Non-assertive students that are trained to be assertive may not get involved in deviant behaviours. Assertive training can also be called resistance training (Asonibare 2016).
Decision-making strategies: It is important for in-school adolescents to develop appropriate decision-making strategies. This will help them choose the right alternatives.
Peer group cluster involvement: This can be in the form of organising peer group counselling in the school. The clubs and societies within the school can engage peer cluster to modifying norms and attitudes (Adegoke 2003).

Research has shown that the psychological and social experiences of the child during this transitional period call for the attention of counsellors and teachers. Toward this end, this paper investigated strategies for managing childhood trauma and deviant behaviours among in-school adolescents in Nigeria. This paper becomes necessary especially in the wake of increased anti-social and deviant behaviours among in secondary schools students.

CONCLUSION
I therefore recommend that the school administrators should clearly spell out the rules and regulations guiding the expected behaviour of students within the school environment. This will enable counsellors and teachers apply an appropriate strategy to manage deviant behaviour. A regular reminder of these rules is expected to further reinforce compliance.

The training of counsellors and teachers on emergent strategies to manage childhood trauma and deviant behaviour should be recurrent. Information-based intervention is an effective strategy in handling trauma and deviant behaviour, so counsellors, teachers, should always provide right information to in-school children about the negative effects of deviant behaviours. The establishment of counselling centres in every secondary school should be complemented by training and curriculum reviews on techniques of managing childhood trauma as it relates to deviant behaviour.

The National Policy on Education (2013) edition clearly stated that “in view of the apparent ignorance of many young people about career prospects and personality maladjustment among students, counsellors will be appointed in post primary institutions’’. Hence, it became compulsory for secondary school administrators to employ professional counsellors. An effective counsellor is a good listener, empathic, warm and sensitive to the needs of others. Counsellors are also trained in modifying maladaptive behaviour.

From the foregoing, it is important therefor, that parents, guardians, caregivers, schools administrators and the government should protect children from experiencing childhood adverse and traumatic events which mostly are man made in this part of the world. If not investigated deviant behaviour as result of childhood trauma, cannot be ascertained.

More so, teachers and school administration should watch closely for various deviant behaviours exhibited in schools and ensure to manage them effectively. Teachers should also investigate the root cause of deviancy in order to know the right strategy to adopt in addressing it. As noted earlier, the negative effects of childhood trauma surpasses poor academic performance as the entire community may bear the brunt for a child’s traumatic event manifested in deviant behaviours.